THE TANZIMAT PERIOD

The political reforms which were promulgated on November 3, 1839 at the Topkapı Palace's Gülhane Garden hastened the westernisation of Istanbul. There were many new improvements from architecture to lifestyles, and from educational to industrial institutions.
Removal of old laws enhanced the city. Suriçi expanded towards the direction of
Bakırköy, Galata towards Tesşvikiye. More places were
inhabited towards Sarıyer on the Bosphorus. The Anatolian side was enhanced between Bostancı and Beykoz.
This enhancement brought with it growing construction activities. Sultans, government officials, the non-muslim rich and ambassadors built palaces, Ihlamur and Küçüksu Imperial summer houses, and Ayazaga, Alemdag, Icadiye and Mecidiye Pavilions were all built during this era. In addition, many official buildings, called "mebain-i Emriyye" were built during the same period. Among them were: Post offices in different districts, Tophane and Maçka weapon storage buildings, and Pangalti and Harbiye Buildings.
Istanbul's rapid westernisation affected the architecture as well. The classical Ottoman architectural style was replaced with Baroque, Rococo and neogothic styles. This even affected the architecture of the mosques.
There were also some infrastructure and service improvements in the city. A bridge was built on the Golden Horn and an underground and the Thrace railway were put into service. Şirket-i Hayriye, a sea public transportation company, was established. Many municipalities were reconstructed. The first telegram line was laid down. City police were established and some police stations were opened. Vakıf Guraba Hospital was opened and a tram run by horses was put into service in Istanbul.
Also many modern educational institutions were opened. Some of the schools founded in this era were: Darülfünun Faculty of Sciences, predecessor of today's Istanbul University), Male and Female High Schools, School of Agriculture, Telegram School, Darülmaarif, (Teacher Training School) Fortress School, Galatasaray High School, Industrial School and Medicine Academy.
All these changes also affected the social life of the city. Especially the lifestyles of British, French and Italian soldiers and officers who came to Istanbul during the Crimea War and the lifestyles of the Levantines living in Galata affected Istanbul's people. Beyoğlu became an entertainment center, with its bars, cafes, tobacco stores, taverns and theaters. Greek, Armenian and Jewish sang in some of the theaters. Plays were becoming popular all around Istanbul. The middle class, along with the imperial and rich people, started to consume western luxury goods. The interior decorations of the houses changed. People started to buy tables, chairs etc. Also, people began to buy separate houses tor summer and winter seasons. Suriçi, Galata and Beyoğlu had winter houses. Bosphorus, Kadıköy and the Princess Islands were places lor summer homes. This drastically raised real estate prices. The amount which in the past would have bought a house at the Bosphorus as later paid for the seasonal rent of those homes.
The economical structure of Istanbul also changed. The traditional trade guilds were closed and the government started to give credit to merchants to become corporations. Industrial establishments were built around the golden horn and Tophane. Strikes were introduced Istanbul for the first time during these years. Galata became financially very powerful. The Palace was borrowing from Galata Bankers who started to direct the Ottomans exchange activities. Also a slock exchange was activated in Galata which attracted not only bankers but also regular citizens.
Political life was also very active during this time. Westernism, Islanılsın and pan-Turkism became powerful. The Political reforms cre-aled e new scholarly group who revived the arts and literature. Tak-vim-i Vakayi (Calendar of Events), Ceride-i Havadis (News Paper), Basiret (Foresight), Vakit (lime), İstikbal (Future), Sadakat (Loyalty), Sabah (Morning), Hayat (Life) and Cihan (World) were among the newspapers published during this time.
Some other important events of the period were: the first census in 1844, the Beyoğlu fire in 1870, the application of the first chicken pox vaccine in 1845 and the establishment ol a real estate tax.

THE MEŞRUTİYET PERIOD

A new era began in Istanbul when Sultan Abdulaziz lost the throne and Sultan Abdülhamıd II, who promised constitutional changes, was crowned as the head of the Ottoman Empire on August 31, 1876. Sultan Abdülhamid 11 promulgated the constitutional changes on December 23, 1876. However, the Turco-Russian War which started on April 27, 1877 caused panic m Istanbul. Istanbul witnessed many sad consequences of the war since it was close to the Thraeian front. Soldiers were sent Irom Istanbul to the west. The wounded soldiers, people coming from the battlefront, and war refugees created some dilficulties in the city. Especially difficult was the struggle among the refugees to live in mosques and schools and in wooden or thin sheds in very bad conditions. This was called the "War of 93 disasters."
Sultan Abdülhamıd II dissolved the parliament on February 13, 1878. On March 3, 1878 Russian troops advanced to Yeşilköy (Aya Stefanos) and a peace treaty was signed at Aya Stefanos, which started a long period of peace.
The Diyun-u Umumiye was established in 1881 lot the unpaid debts ol the  Ottoman Empire.  There were some important attempts to reconstruct Istanbul during this period, Despite the fact that most of the income of the Empire was confiscated by the Düyun-u Umumiye. To reconstruct the burned fields and convert them to residential areas, the Terkos water network, the Hamidiye water system, and the enhancement of the natural gas system were introduced.
Istanbul also had a big earthquake during this period. The people of Istanbul called it the "310 Earthquake." It occurred in 1894 and badly damaged the city walls, but renovations were started immediately.
Sultan Abdülhamid II did not like his own picture to be taken, but a photograph album of Istanbul and the Empire was prepared during his reign.
Some social unrest in 1895 and 1896 and two assassination attempts in 1905 and 1906 were some important events in Istanbul during this period. The first unsuccessful assassination attempt was aimed at the Sultan. Şehremini Rıdvan Pasha (mayor of the city) lost his life in the second assassination. Some formal visits could be counted among other important events of the time. The Shah of Iran
, Nasireddin and his son, the former President of the United States of America, General Grant, and Wilhelm 11, the emperor of Germany visited Istanbul. Wilhelm II ordered the construction of the famous German Fountain as a remembrance of his visit.
Sultan Abdülhamid II was interested tn educational matters and ordered the Opening of many Schools.
Among them were: Civil - Service, Law, Fine Arts, Medicine, Education, Finance, Pharmacy, Business, Agriculture, Veterinary, Fortress and Metallurgy, Commercial Navy, Disability, and Industrial schools. These schools ranged from university to high school level. This also influenced the number of private schools which reached 30 by 1900.  Some private schools were Dariilfeyz,
Burhan-i Terakki, Numune-i Irian, and Şems-i İrfan.
Along with these schools, the Archaeological Museum, Beyazıt Public Library, Yıldız Archive and Library, and the Government's Archive were established during these years. Haydarpaşa Medicine School, Şişli Etfal Hospital, and Darülaceze were also established during this period and remain intact today.
On July 24, 1908 second constitution was promulgated and around 8 months later Sultan Abdülhamid II was dethroned. Sultan Mehmed Reşad V was crowned instead on April 27, 1909.
From that date until the formation of the Republic, Istanbul had  many wars and troubles, The people of Istanbul frequently witnessed people being hanged on the gallows in the public squares after the March 31 event which caused the crowning of Sultan Mehmed V
The Çıragan Palace was burned down on January 19, 1910. It was the first of many bad events. The journalist Ahmed Samim Bey was assassinated on June 9, 1910. Babıali was set alight on February 6, 1911. The Balkan War started on October 18, 1912. Istanbul was facing the same kind of disaster which happened during the 93 War. There was an attack against Babıali on January 23, 1913. The Kamil Pasha Government was forced to resign. Bribery, immorality and theft were very common and were threatening the government. Sultan Mehmed Reşad V could only watch all of this. The real power in his reign could be found in the Party of Union and Progress. The Grand Vizier Mahmud Şevket Pasha was assassinated on June 11, 1913. World War I started on November 14,1914.
The war brought famine and poverty. In spite of all its efforts, the administration could not stop the black market. The war brought wealth to some people who spent enormous amounts of money at the entertainment centers of the Beyoğlu. The hungry, the poor, and the disabled war veterans of Istanbul could only watch the extravagance of these displays of decadence.

THE ALLIED OCCUPATION AND ARMISTICE

The Ottoman Empire was defeated in World War I with her Allies. The occupation of Istanbul formally began when 55 enemy ships moored in front of the Haydarpaşa on November 13, 1918 after the Armistice of Mondros was signed. Bui the city was physical])- 1101 occupied of soldiers until a decision was made at the London Conference.
The Parliament (Meclis-i Mcbusan), which was dissolved by the Sultan in 1918, reconvened on January 12, 1920 and and on January 28, 1920 consented to the Misak-ı Milli (National Pact).
The decision to occupy Istanbul was taken at the London Conference on March 4, 1920. The Telegram House was occupied on March 14. And total occupation began on the night of March 15 The most critical places were taken and controlled by soldiers. Early in the morning, some British troops attacked the headquarters building at Şehzadebaşı and opened fire on Ottoman soldiers. The city was completely occupied by noon. British troops attacked the Parliament House in the afternoon. But the Parliament survived until the Sultan dissolved it on April 11, then approximately 150 politicians were exiled to Malta.
Istanbul witnessed some enormous demonstrations during the occupation and armistice years. A rally was held in Fatih square on May 19, 1919 where women addressed the public for the first time. There were more than 50 thousand people at the meeting. There was another rally of more than 150 thousand people in Sultanahmet square after the Parliament House was reopened. Students and staff of the Darülfünun (Faculty of Sciences) boycotted the school between April 10 and July 29, 1922.
In addition to numerous demonstrations, another important development during this period was the establishment of some secret organisations working for independence. Karakol Association, Mim Group, and the National Defence (Müdafa-ı Milliye) Organisation were the most important of these. Among their activities they organised demonstrations, smuggled weapons, ammunitions, and soldiers for the independence movement of
Anatolia, and carried out intelligence work.
Istanbul's population was in constant movement in those years. On the one hand, some people were leaving the occupied city and migrating to the other cities of Anatolia which were not under occupation.   On the other hand, so many people were migrating to  Istanbul.  The Russian immigrants who were escaping from the Bolshevik Revolution had the most impact on Istanbul and its people. There were approximately 200,000 Russian immigrants.
The Russian ladies' outfits were very welcomed by Istanbul's women and became the latest fashion. Istanbul's population, led by the Russians, went to the beach to swim for the first time during this period. In spite of the occupation, the night life of Istanbul was revitalised during this period. Concerts in cafes, theater companies and movie theaters became very attractive. Bars and pastry shops were introduced to tstanbul as an alternative to the taverns and desert houses. They brought a moral collapse too. Prostitution among the Russian women who worked at such entertainment places began to affect the city.
Workers' demonstrations and socialist activities were also revitalised. Many socialist and labor organisations were established. Strikes and other labor activities increased. May 1st was celebrated as Labor Day in Istanbul for the first time during this period
Turkish soldiers entered Izmir on October 9, 1922. This began the liberation of Istanbul. Mudanya Armistice, signed on October 11, itemised the gradual departure of the occupation forces from Thrace. In Ankara, the Turkish Grand National Assembly decided to abolish the Sultanate on November 1, 1922. Thus, Istanbul, for practical purposes, was no longer the capital, even though it legally remained so till October 1923. The last Ottoman Sultan, Vahideddin, left Istanbul on November 16, 1922.
For the second time m its history —after the destructive Latin occupation of the 13th century— Western occupation forces completely withdrew from Istanbul. The last soldier left on November 4, 1923 (s2)