THE RISE OF THE OTTOMANS

The Ottoman state was born in 1301 when Osman I, a leader h of warriors who were fighting for the Muslim faith on the eastern frontier of the Byzantine Empire, declared his indepen­dence. The new state quickly expanded and in 1326 captured Prusa (modern-day Bursa ), which became its capital. The judicious piety of the Ottomans soon won them the support of the general population of their territories, and even of some Christian brotherhoods. Meanwhile, a professional core of Janissaries  was created to add stability to an army which was oth­erwise too dependent on Turkic and renegade volunteer cavalry.

By 1362, with the Ottoman capture of Adrianople (Edirne ), Byzantium had been reduced to the city-state of Constantinople and a few minor outposts, isolated within Ottoman domains. Only a Mongol incursion in 1402 delayed the Ottoman invasion of Constantinople itself. In 1422 the Ottoman army made its first attack on the city's colossal land walls. As the threat increased, the Byzantine emperor made a last ditch effort to win the support of the Latin West in 1439. The Hungarians alone answered his call for help, forming a 25,000-strong crusade. However, in 1444 they were defeated en route by the Ottomans at the Battle of Varna on the Black Sea.(s1)

ISTANBUL BEFORE THE CONQUEST

Prior to the fall of Istanbul to the Ottomans, Byzantium had lost its status as a powerful empire: its land mass holdings had shrunk to the territories of Constantinople, Stlivri Castle on the Marmara shore, and several small towns, such as Vize and Misivri. These sites were completely surrounded by the Ottomans, and the villages just beyond the Constantinople fortresses were left untouched by the Ottomans not because they were strong, but because they were considered insignificant. Constantinople was the target.
The Byzantine emperors had accepted the sovereignty of the Ottomans and were paying tribute taxes to the Empire. In reality, then, the Ottomans were dealing not with Byzantine emperors, but with minor Tekfurs (Byzantine princes). In essence, then, the domination of Byzantium was not that of an empire and that Constantinople was more a religious center than the seat of an empire. It was the last and the most powerful stronghold of Christendom in the face of Islam and mounting Muslim military forces. To circumvent its fall, the Pope organised a new Crusade.
However, having been stunned by Ottoman attacks, Byzantium's most debilitating internal problem was exposed: the rift between Orthodox and Catholic Christians. This division led to insufficient assistance from Europe to defend ihe crippled Empire. In a desperate effort to unify the factions, the Emperor and Patriarch gave in, and in 1439 at the Florence Council, knelt down, and offered their allegiance to the Catholic Church. Although a constrained one, this new alliance began an era of d'Etente between the. Roman Orthodox and Catholic Church, who, with the eminent Ottoman threat, put aside their hundred-year-old conflict and differences. The formal celebration of the agreement was to become
the subject of mass protests, however, as the people of Constantinople feared European involvement, and sought to defray the resurrection of another Latin era.
After the Florence Council agreement, the powerful Crusade that was formed launched an attack on Rumeli in 1443 and 1444. However, the Ottoman victory at Varna was able to stop the tide of invading Crusaders. Varna was also the battle that determined the fate of Costantinople. Now, the conquest of the city became compelling for the young empire, who perceived Constantinople as an ailing element in the heart of Ottoman land. The decisive link between Rumeli and Anatolia spelt the fall of Constantinople and the rise of Istanbul.(s2)

THE CONQUEST OF ISTANBUL

On 29 May 1453 Sultan Mehmet II (1451-81), known as "the Conqueror", entered Constantinople after a 54-day siege during which his cannon had torn a huge hole in the Walls of Theodosius II. Mehmet's first task was to rebuild the wrecked city, which would later become known as Istanbul. The Grand Bazaar  and Topkapi Palace  were erected in the years following the Muslim conquest. Religious foundations were endowed to fund the building of mosques such as the Fatih  and their associated schools and baths (see pp38-9). The city had to be repopulated by a mixture of force and encouragement. People from all over the empire moved to Istanbul, and Jews, Christians and Muslims lived together in a cosmopolitan society.
Mehmet and his successors pushed the frontiers of the empire across the Middle East and into Europe. In the early 16th century, Selim I (1512-20) conquered Egypt and assumed the title of caliph , as well as establishing the Ottomans as a sea power. He is also notorious for killing all his male relatives bar one son, to ensure that there were no rivals for the succession. (s1)